Romantic Studies

Musical 'verismo' was a notable feature of operas by such diverse composers as Leoncavallo, Mascagni, Puccini, Mussorgsky and others. What do we understand by the term 'Verismo' in opera?

This essay aims to explore the origins and development of the 'verismo' style in nineteenth century opera and to examine its importance within the operatic genre as a whole. In doing this, an understanding of the term 'verismo' can be established in its operatic context
'Verismo' is an Italian term meaning 'realism'. The word is most often used to describe an Italian operatic movement of the late nineteenth century, which included the works of composers such as Mascagni, Leoncavallo, Puccini and Giordano. However, realism in music was not a new phenomenon to the nineteenth century, and was by no means founded in nor confined to Italy. Realism dates as far back as Ancient Greek drama and tragedy, where human emotions and passions were strikingly portrayed. Throughout history artists felt a proclivity for expressing realism, whether it be through literature, art, drama or music.

The movement which preceded nineteenth century operatic 'verismo' took its influences from the realist artistic works of previous centuries, and also focused upon major changes taking place at the time. The Western world was undergoing dramatic transformation on both a societal and economic level as a result of the scientific and industrial revolutions. The French academic Auguste Comte (1798-1857) founded the philosophy of positivism, a scientific theory of society, which centred around the concept that "mankind had outgrown theology and metaphysics; the only reality with which it need concern itself was that of observable 'fact'. There were no mysteries in the world that rigorous scientific investigation would not solve sooner or later" (Kimbell, David, 1995: Italian Opera: Cambridge University Press p622). This philosophy was fuel to the fire of early realists who, between the mid and late 1800's developed a more extreme anti-Romantic and almost scientific form of realism more often referred to as 'naturalism'. This movement, a direct reflection of the cultural shift taking place, was a central theme of aesthetic debate throughout the 1850's and 1860's. In writing on this theme Dahlhaus states "Even where the music of the period might be described more plausibly as 'neo-Romantic' than as 'realist', it often shared with the other arts a loss of idealism and of subjectivism. In many cases it shared too a contempt for aesthetic norms and conventions, flaunting them carelessly in the interests of a greater 'reality' "(Samson, Jim, 1991: 'Music and Society' in Jim Samson, ed.,The Late Romantic Era: From the Mid 19th Century to World War I:Macmillan p22).

The leading proponent of 'naturalism' was the French author Emile Zola (1840-1902) whose work "professed documentary realism while gloating over sordid and violent aspects of life"(Rosselli, John, 1991: 'Italy: the Decline of a Tradition' in Jim Sansom, ed., The Late Romantic Era: From the Mid 19th Century to World War I Macmillan, p140). His works tended to focus very much upon the 'low-life'. criminals, peasants and the relationship between society and its victims. These themes can be seen in later operas of the realist and verismo genres.

Operas such as Fidelio(1814) by Beethoven, Aida(1871) by Verdi and Carmen by Bizet can be cited as early examples of realism making an effect on opera. In the case of Beethoven it was the striking depiction of Pizarro's inprisonment of Florestan, the raw human emotions of Fidelio, and the overwhelming freedom scene at the end which convey the realistic message. Verdi's opera was also true to life, containing rich Egyptian local colour and scenic detail. Bizet's Carmen, based upon a novella of Prosper Merimee was also a realistic opera based upon ordinary people, eroticism and violence and as such it was incomprehensible to the patrons of the Opera-Comique, who felt that "the respectability of the state-subsidised theatre had been sullied by what one critic described as "Castilian licentiousness"."(Orrey, Leslie, 1996:Opera: Thames & Hudson p156-7)
Realism was also a prevalent concern of many nineteenth century Russian writers and composers. A struggle to create and maintain a Russion national music had been started by Glinka (1804-1857) and Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869) and was later continued by Russians such as Balakirev, Cui, Borodin, Rimsky Korsakov and Musorgsky. These composers were not trained in the standard German conservatory tradition and hence looked to their own nation, lore and folk music for inspiration and subject matter. It was such national inspiration that stirred Modest Musorgsky (1839-1881) to write his epic opera Boris Godunov (1874) which has today become one of the cornerstones of the operatic repertoire.

Musorgsky had lived in an artists commune in Saint Petersberg in 1863, where he had been exposed to contemporary literary movements, theory and aesthetics, learning about styles such as realism. This style was "espoused by Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernishevsky and exemplified in the novels and stories of Turgenev and Grigorovich. The arts, according to this doctrine, must eschew their own conventions in order to present their subjects in a direct and unadorned fashion; and proper subjects for artistic treatment are to be the real stuff of ordinary life- the Russian peasant, newly freed, became a favourite object of literary scrutiny" (Platinga, Leon, 1984: Romantic Music- A history of musical style in 19th Century Europe: W.W. Norton & Co. p374) Musorgsky's exposure to these works, as well as the influence of Dargomyzhsky's 'The Stone Guest' (1860-9) influenced a series of realistic works, for example a chamber opera setting of Gogol's The Marriage (1868) which was an extreme experiment in realistic declamation, which preceded Boris Godunov

The libretto for the opera was written by Musorgsky himself, but was based on a well crafted historical drama of the same name by Aleksandr Pushkin and N. M. Karamazin's History of the Russian State (1824). This opera assumes the form of a prologue and four acts and centres around Boris Godunov's (bass) murder of the rightful heir to the Russian throne, Dimitri. A monk named Grigory (tenor) poses as the late Dimitri and aims to start a revolt agains Boris who had laid claim to the throne. Suddenly Boris, crazed by visions of the murdered boy, staggers in. A second monk, Pimen (bass), appears and tells of the young Dimitri, now numbered among the saints of God. It is too much for the demented Boris, who falls dead. (For a more detailed description of the plot see Lloyd-Jones, David, 1993: 'Modest Musorgsky' in Amanda Holden ed., The Penguin Opera Guide p260)
Boris Godunov signified the pinnacle of Musorgsky's experimentations with realism, and both preceded and influenced the Italian veristic movement through its succinct melodic lines which directly convey emotion, its dramatic recitative, irregularity of phrase length, intensely national libretto and focus on word setting, and an obvious folk influence. Musorgsky aimed to write music as a true and accurate, yet artistic reproduction of the nuances of human speech. As Feodor Chaliapin (a bass who assumed the role of Boris Godunov in Rimsky Korsakov's edition of the opera) stated "certainly Musorgsky is a realist, but his power lies not in the fact that his music is realistic, but in the fact that his realism is music in the most staggering sense of the word. Behind his realism, as behind a curtain, there is a whole world of insights and emotions that simply cannot fit into the realistic plane" (Chaliapin, Feodor: 'Memoir extract' in Caryl Emerson and Robert William Oldani, ed., Modest Musorgsky and Boris Godunov; Myths, Realities, Reconsiderations: Cambridge, p156)

The first Italian opera to be truly described as 'veristic' was Cavalleria Rusticana by Pietro Mascagni (1863-1945). This was a one-act work, first performed in 1890, whose title literally translated means 'Rustic Chivalry'. It was originally written for an opera competition of 1888, sponsored by the Milanese publisher E. Sonzogno. Mascagni was unknown at the time, but his opera won the competition. The libretto was based upon a story from Giovanni Verga's Vita dei Campi of 1880.
The Italian 'verismo' movement into which this opera fits "resembles French naturalism in the use of scenes and characters from common life; but the French naturalists used these materials as a means for the development of more general ideas and feelings, idealising both scene and music, whereas the goal of the Italian realists was simply to present a vivid, melodramatic plot, to arouse sensation by violent contrasts and to paint a cross-section of life without concerning themselves with any general significance the action might have"(Grout, Donald Jay, 1988: A Short History of Opera Columbia University Press, p509). Itis interesting to note that the essential difference between French literary naturalism and Italian veristic writing was that French authors often assumed a more harsly politicised and theoretical stance, offering social commentary through their work. It is thought that this apparent difference between French and Italian works of the time was due to the relative states of the two countries. France was re-establishing itself after the Revolution of 1848 which had shaken the otherwise sturdy foundations of the nation, whereas Italy had finally become a powerful and unified country, leaving its' citizens feeling proud and confident. This was directly reflected in the comparative literary outputs of Zola, a Frenchman directly and honestly critiquing the state of his country, and Sicilian writers such as Verga and Luigi Capuana writing short stories and novels about regions of Italy, the working-class lifestyle and events taking place within this setting.
As with veristic literature, operas of the genre tended to starkly depict violence and passion, as well as celebrating the cultures of different regional areas. As Kimbell states, "Whilst naturalism is urban, verismo is more typically rural and provincial"(Kimbell, David, 1995: Italian Opera: Cambridge p624)

Cavalleria Rusticana was certainly Anti-Wagnerian in style, flouting operatic conventions for melodramatic gain, favouring a return to the older cantabile style of earlier Italian operas. The veristic element is clear through Mascagni's expression of raw emotion and the exploration and unleashing of more accessible subject matters. The intense passion and sensation of the relationship between Turiddu and Lola and the duel between Turiddu and Alfio portray the realistic, if not sensationalistic, thematic material.
This extreme passion is delivered through poignantly expressive melodic or declamatory phrases, accompanied by sensational orchestral harmonies, with choral or instrumental interludes to set the mood. At times Mascagni's score seems rather simplistic or almost purposefully primitive, although it serves its purpose to deliver moments of excitement, tension and passion in swift succession - as Kimbell calls it "continuous vibrant emotional ecstacy. It was the combination of radical simplicity in the dramatic action with a style of vocal writing in which virtually every phrase is laden with searing intensity that made Cavalleria Rusticana irresistible and verismo fashionable"(Kimbell, David, 1995: Italian Opera: Cambridge p621)

The second most famous Italian 'verismo' opera of the period was I Pagliaci (often referred to simply as Pagliacci), meaning 'Clowns', written by Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1858-1919) two years after the first performance of Cavalleria Rusticana. The opera was undoubtedly influenced by Mascagni's work and is today often played as part of an operatic double bill with Cavalleria. Its libretto, written by the composer himself, was based upon a real court case at which Leoncavallo's father had been police-magistrate, a crime of passion.
The opera opens in a veristic manner with a prologue during which a clown, Tonio (baritone), explains that the play is not just make-believe: the characters are real people, the story true. The plot revolves around Tonio's unrequited love for Canio's wife, Nedda (soprano), Nedda's passion for her her lover, Silvio (baritone), and the mental turmoil, madness and murders that ensue during the Harlequinade they are performing.
The realism is artfully portrayed here, with emotional conflicts from the characters' personal lives interfering with their professional lives and wreaking havoc in the Commedia dell'arte play-within-a-play. The tenor solo, 'Vesti la giubba', in which Canio the clown must laugh although his heart is breaking is a fine example of the welling emotion contained within the opera.

The music of I Pagliacci is without a doubt more sophisticated and continuous than Cavalleria Rusticana, with rich harmonies and a certain air of tension maintained throughout. Its' true to life, yet primitive themes of passion, jealousy, violence, despair and love make I Pagliacci a veristic and dramatic masterpiece. As Boyden describes it, " the epitome of every hot-blooded Italian operatic cliche, Pagliacci is one of the most elementally exciting operas ever written and its international popularity has never waned from the day if its' premiere" (Boyden, Matthew, 1997:Opera: Penguin, p327)
Unfortunately both Masgagni and Leoncavallo never again achieved the success of their first veristic operas, with Cavalleria Rusticana and I Pagliacci respectively being the composers' main legacies to the world of opera.

Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924) was, however, the leading figure in Italian opera of the late nineteenth century. His three most famous works, La Boheme (1896), Tosca (1900), and Madama Butterfly (1904) all convey aspects of the verismo style to their audiences.
Puccini also wrote a one-act veristic melodrama, Il Tabarro (1915-16) which contained many realistic touches such as car-horn noises, and snatches of music from La Boheme as we see a music seller on stage. These realistic elements are closely integrated into the otherwise sombre atmosphere of the drama and heighten our involvement and understanding of the action. Some aspects of realism, although perhaps less convincing, are also apparent in La Fanciulla del West (1910) although these are more related to the depiction of the Californian locale.

La Boheme contains dramatic touches of verismo in a different scale to that of Cavalleria Rusticana. Its drama is not based on crime and violence, but upon the pathetic plight of Mimi combined with heart-wrenching music, longing and yearning for better times.
Tosca was based upon a drama of the same name, written in 1887 by Victorien Sardou. The plot centres around lust and crime, two veristic themes, which are beautifully set to music. "To anatomise the crime of passion became an obsession with writers in the last decades of the nineteenth century; and the fascination forges a link between verismo and decadence that is obviously indispensable to any understanding of Puccini" (Kinbell, David, 1995:Italian Opera: Cambridge p624)

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Last updated on Friday, 31-Oct-2003 11:24:58 GMT